https://ppls.ui.ac.ir/ Positive Psychology Research en daily 1 Sat, 23 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0330 Sat, 23 Aug 2025 00:00:00 +0330 https://ppls.ui.ac.ir/article_30300.html The present study aimed to evaluate the impact of a compassion-based intervention on fear of failure, mothers' fear of negative evaluation, and children's emotional and behavioral problems in mothers residing in Isfahan City. This research employed a quasi-experimental design, consisting of a pretest, posttest, and a follow-up period. Through convenience sampling and adhering to inclusion criteria, 40 mothers with daughters aged 9 to 11 exhibiting symptoms of emotional and behavioural problems in Isfahan were selected and assigned to either an experimental or control group. The mothers in the experimental group received a compassion-based intervention over 8 sessions, each lasting 90 minutes (two sessions per week). The control group received no intervention. The research instruments included the Achenbach System of Empirically Based Assessment-Child Behavior Checklist, the Performance Failure Apprehension Scale, and the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. Data analysis was performed using Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance. The results indicated that the variables of fear of failure and fear of negative evaluation showed statistically significant group, time, and time-group interaction effects. Furthermore, for the components of internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and the total score of emotional and behavioral problems, the group variable, time variable, and the time-group interaction were also statistically significant. Therefore, compassion-based intervention can be utilized as an effective intervention for improving fear of failure, reducing mothers' fear of negative evaluation, and mitigating children's emotional and behavioural problems. Introduction Emotional and behavioural problems arise when an individual’s emotional or behavioural expressions deviate from cultural, developmental, or ethnic norms, thereby negatively affecting academic performance, self-care, social relationships, and intra‑ and interpersonal as well as environmental adjustment (DSM‑5‑TR, 2022). Interventions addressing children's emotional and behavioural problems emphasize improving parent–child interactions. According to previous studies, one of the most important factors contributing to a reduction in children's emotional and behavioural problems is the enhancement of parenting skills (Luo et al., 2023). In this regard, it has been shown that parents of children with special needs, due to self-blame and feelings of guilt about their child’s condition, tend to have low levels of self-compassion (Ahmed, 2022). Self-compassion may serve as a protective factor against parental hopelessness and anxiety (Liang et al., 2025). Given the practical implications of compassion-based interventions, the present study aimed to examine the effectiveness of a compassion intervention on mothers' fear of failure, fear of negative evaluation, and their children's emotional and behavioural problems.   Method The present study was applied in purpose and quasi-experimental in design, employing a pretest–posttest–follow‑up structure with a control group. The statistical population included all mothers and their daughters with emotional and behavioural problems enrolled in schools in Isfahan during the 2024–2025 academic year. Using purposive sampling and based on inclusion criteria, 40 mothers of girls aged 9 to 11 years exhibiting symptoms of emotional and behavioural problems were selected and assigned to experimental and control groups. Mothers in the experimental group participated in eight 90‑minute compassion training sessions (held twice a week), while the control group received no intervention. The research instruments included the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist, the Fear of Failure in Performance Scale, and the Brief Fear of Negative Evaluation Scale. To analyze the data, differences among pretest, posttest, and follow‑up scores between the two groups were examined using repeated measures ANOVA in SPSS‑26.   Results Before the inferential analysis, the normality of the research variables was examined. The Shapiro–Wilk test was applied, yielding values for the variables fear of failure (p= 0.178), fear of negative evaluation (p = 0.189), and emotional–behavioural problems (p=0.221). Since the P-values for all three variables were greater than the acceptable significance level, the use of parametric statistical tests was deemed appropriate for this study. To examine the significance of differences between the two groups, repeated measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was employed. The assumptions of this test were assessed using Levene’s test, Box’s M test, and Mauchly’s test of sphericity. Levene’s test for homogeneity of variances among the dependent variables across groups indicated that the variances of fear of failure (F = 0.67, p > 0.05), fear of negative evaluation (F=0.89, p>0.05), and emotional–behavioural problems (F = 1.78, p > 0.05) were equal among the groups. The results of Box’s M test for the variables fear of failure (M Box = 4.732, p>0.05), fear of negative evaluation (M Box = 5.747, p > 0.05), and emotional–behavioural problems (M Box = 6.860, p>0.05) were non-significant, indicating that the covariance matrices of the experimental and control groups were homogeneous. Finally, the results of Mauchly’s test of sphericity for the variables fear of failure (M = 0.635, χ² =2.683, p> 0.05), fear of negative evaluation (M = 0.899, χ² = 3.412, p > 0.05), and emotional–behavioural problems (M = 0.772, χ² = 7.228, p> 0.05) showed no significant deviation, confirming the homogeneity of variances between groups over time. Subsequently, a repeated measures analysis of variance was employed to examine the significance of the differences between the two groups.     Table 1 Results of Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance for Fear of Failure, Fear of Negative Evaluation, and Emotional-Behavioural Problems Variable Source of Variation Sum of Squares Df Mean Square F P Eta Squared Fear of Failure Within-Subjects Time 146/467 2 73/233 151/793 0/001 0/800   Time*Group 252/200 2 126/100 261/371 0/001 0/873 Between-Subjects Group 621/075 1 621/075 94/561 0/001 0/713 Fear of Negative Evaluation Within-Subjects Time 676/717 2 338/358 515/335 0/001 0/931   Time*Group 804/050 2 402/025 612/303 0/001 0/942 Between-Subjects Group 1555/200 1 1555/200 264/301 0/001 0/874 Internalizing Problems Within-Subjects Time 638/517 2 319/258 158/932 0/001 0/807   Time*Group 728/817 2 364/408 181/409 0/001 0/827 Between-Subjects Group 1293/633 1 1293/633 237/785 0/001 0/860 Externalizing Problems Within-Subjects Time 53/517 2 26/758 38/250 0/001 0/502   Time*Group 264/650 2 132/325 189/154 0/001 0/833 Between-Subjects Group 607/500 1 607/500 80/398 0/001 0/679 Emotional-Behavioural Problems Within-Subjects Time 1047/800 2 523/900 163/629 0/001 0/812   Time*Group 1870/867 2 935/433 292/163 0/001 0/885 Between-Subjects Group 3674/133 1 3674/133 297/649 0/001 0/887     The results presented in Table 1 indicate the following: In the components of fear of failure and fear of negative evaluation, as well as in the variables of group, time, and the interaction between time and group, the effects were statistically significant. Moreover, for the components of internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and the total score of emotional-behavioral problems, the main effects of group, the interaction effect of time and group, and the main effect of time were all significant. To compare the mean scores across measurement phases (pretest, posttest, and follow-up), the Bonferroni correction was applied. The results revealed that for the variables of fear of failure and fear of negative evaluation, the differences between mean scores across all measurement stages were statistically significant (p ≤ 0.001). Similarly, regarding emotional-behavioral problems and their subscales, the findings showed that in the subscales of internalizing problems, externalizing problems, and the overall score of emotional-behavioral problems, the differences between mean scores across all measurement stages were statistically significant (p ≤ 0.001).   Conclusion This research was conceptualized in light of the existing research gap in the field of individuals with special needs, especially children with emotional and behavioural problems and their families, concerning the experience and expression of compassion. Self-compassion involves an individual's sense of caring for oneself, non-judgmentally accepting one's inadequacies and failures, and accepting that one's experiences are part of the common human experience (Ghasemi, 2019). Therefore, individuals with high self-compassion treat themselves kindly when experiencing adverse events, which initially leads to increased social connection and reduced self-criticism, negative self-evaluation, and suppression of negative thoughts such as anxiety (Dasht Bozorgi & Homai, 2018). During the intervention sessions, mothers were taught to apply self-compassion in various situations, especially in genuinely difficult real-life scenarios, such as dealing with their children, to establish constructive social relationships with their children. By the end of the sessions, the participating mothers acknowledged that the internal feeling of compassion towards themselves and their families had led to the improvement of maladaptive thought patterns, the adoption of adaptive coping strategies for failure, a reduction in negative self-evaluation, a non-critical attitude towards setbacks and frustrations, and the creation of a balanced and non-judgmental perspective in problem-solving. Furthermore, the compassion-based intervention, using techniques such as teaching how to tolerate the child's difficult behavior, avoiding hasty judgment of the child's behavior, teaching how to tolerate and master problems, and teaching the acceptance of potential failure and unchangeable life issues, motivates mothers—by accepting their children's negative emotions and practicing the creation of positive emotions in them—to be more motivated to change and replace their children's problematic behaviors and emotions with positive behaviors and feelings, rather than ruminating over their problematic actions. Regarding the limitations of this study, it should be noted that the sample was limited to the geographical area of Isfahan City, and generalization to other students should be done with caution. Therefore, it is suggested that the effectiveness of the compassion intervention be investigated in broader geographical areas. Additionally, comparing the effectiveness of compassion interventions with other family psychology interventions (such as mindfulness-based family interventions, integrative interventions, and meta-cognitive interventions) can help uncover the specific contribution of compassion interventions in the field of children with emotional and behavioural problems.   Ethical considerations Compliance with Ethical Guidelines Prior to the start of the research, participants were made aware of the research objective. It was announced to the participants that they could withdraw from the study at any time if they wished. They were also assured that their identity information would remain confidential. This research did not have any conflicts with the religious and cultural norms of the society. This research has also been approved by the Ethics Committee of University of Isfahan with the ethics code IR.UI.REC.1401.015. Funding The present research did not receive any financial support from any organization or institution. Authors’ contribution The first author was responsible for data collection, statistical analysis, and writing the initial draft under the supervision of the advisor (the second author). Conflict of interest In the disclosures of this article, there are no conflicts of interest among the authors. Acknowledgments The authors would like to express gratitude to all the peoples who participated in this research. https://ppls.ui.ac.ir/article_30297.html This study aimed to systematically synthesize and prioritize the main factors influencing university students’ happiness and well-being. Employing a rigorous qualitative methodology based on interpretive meta-synthesis, the research comprehensively analyzed 156 scientific articles, including Persian and English sources, published between 2000 and 2023. Findings revealed that student happiness is a complex construct influenced by four main dimensions: internal-individual (encompassing personality and psychological factors, spiritual and religious factors, and demographic characteristics), external-social (including relationships and social capital, and technological and media factors), structural-environmental (comprising academic and educational factors, economic and occupational factors, and environmental and residential factors), and health and lifestyle (involving lifestyle and coping factors, and health and well-being). The subsequent quantitative prioritization, based on the frequency of citation, established that personality and psychological factors are the most cited determinants across both language groups. Crucially, differences were observed in secondary rankings: relationships and social capital ranked second in Persian articles, whereas academic and educational factors held this position in English articles. These variations suggest that the cultural and social context significantly impacts the relative importance of happiness determinants. The results underscore the necessity of adopting a multidimensional, culturally-sensitive approach to developing effective policies and interventions for enhancing student quality of life in higher education settings.IntroductionHappiness is a primary human goal and a foundational component of positive psychology, crucial for both physical and mental health. In the academic domain, student happiness is linked to better academic performance, higher motivation, and greater social integration. University students worldwide face unique stressors, including academic pressure and financial concerns, which often lead to declining levels of well-being, a trend also observed in recent national studies in Iran. Since prior research often focuses on limited individual factors, a comprehensive, integrated framework that systematically synthesizes global and local evidence is urgently needed to inform large-scale policy-making. Therefore, this research sought to answer two fundamental questions: 1) What are the most important dimensions, categories, and factors influencing student happiness? 2) How do these factors rank in priority based on their citation frequency in previous studies, separated by Persian and English sources? MethodThis study utilized a qualitative, applied research design employing the interpretive meta-synthesis method, following the rigorous seven-stage model developed by Sandelowski and Barroso (2007). The research population included all relevant studies on university student happiness published in reliable domestic and international databases (such as Google Scholar, Scopus, and Iranian scientific portals) during the period 2000 to 2023. The initial search, using keywords like "happiness," "student," and "university" and their Persian equivalents, yielded 212 articles. A comprehensive five-stage screening process, including the removal of duplicates, title and abstract screening, content assessment, and final quality appraisal using the Critical Appraisal Skills Programme (CASP) criteria, resulted in the selection of 156 high-quality articles (63 Persian and 93 English) for final analysis. The qualitative data derived from these articles were then analyzed and synthesized using a thematic analysis approach to categorize the influencing factors. Subsequently, a quantitative frequency analysis was applied to the themes to determine the prioritization and ranking of the identified factors across the two language groups, providing a robust mixed-methods approach to the synthesis. ResultsThe primary findings demonstrate that the factors influencing student happiness are synthesized into four overarching dimensions, each comprising several core categories, as detailed in the synthesis tables.The overall factor prioritization, determined by the frequency of thematic citation in the 156 analyzed articles, is presented in Table 1. Since this is a meta-synthesis based on frequency counting, conventional parametric statistical tests like F or Box’s M are not applicable. Instead, the analysis focuses on the quantitative comparison of citation frequencies across categories.  Table 1Prioritization of Factors Influencing Student Happiness Based on Total Citation FrequencyRankCategoryDimensionTotal Frequency1Personality and Psychological FactorsInternal-Individual1062Academic and Educational FactorsStructural-Environmental583Relationships and Social CapitalExternal-Social544Health and Well-being FactorsHealth and Lifestyle495Lifestyle and Coping FactorsHealth and Lifestyle426Economic and Occupational FactorsStructural-Environmental267Spiritual and Religious FactorsInternal-Individual228Demographic FactorsInternal-Individual209Environmental and Residential FactorsStructural-Environmental1210Technological and Media FactorsExternal-Social7  The analysis of frequency distribution across the two language groups revealed a crucial distinction in secondary rankings:In Persian articles, relationships and social capital ranked second (20 citations), immediately followed by academic and educational factors (17 citations).In English articles, academic and educational factors ranked second (41 citations), and health and well-being factors ranked third (35 citations).A notable difference was observed in the technological and media factors category, which was cited 7 times in English articles (ranking 9th) but received zero citations in Persian sources, highlighting a gap in domestic research focus.The factor analysis confirmed that personality and psychological factors (e.g., self-esteem, resilience, and optimism) are the single most frequently studied and cited determinants, universally recognized as primary predictors. This universal emphasis, quantified by the high total frequency of 106, suggests a consistent recognition of the internal dispositional roots of happiness, regardless of cultural context.ConclusionThe fundamental aim of this study was to synthesize and prioritize the factors influencing university student happiness. The results successfully identified a comprehensive framework consisting of four core dimensions (internal-individual, external-social, structural-environmental, and health and lifestyle), thus addressing the complexity of the happiness construct.The key finding regarding the universal primacy of personality and psychological factors aligns strongly with established theoretical models, such as the Self-Determination Theory (SDT), which underscores the importance of satisfying basic psychological needs like competence and autonomy (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Furthermore, the elevated rank of relationships and social capital (rank 2) in Persian studies provides empirical support for the theoretical notion that, in collectivistic cultures, the need for relatedness (an SDT component) and strong social bonds plays a significantly more pronounced role in subjective well-being compared to individualistic cultural settings.Limitations and Suggestions: The study’s limitations include its reliance solely on published academic articles, potentially excluding valuable grey literature or unpublished findings. Additionally, cultural subtleties in the Persian conceptualization of happiness may not have been fully captured. For future research, it is suggested to conduct longitudinal studies to track happiness changes over the academic life cycle and to evaluate the effectiveness of interventions specifically designed based on the prioritized factors, particularly focusing on the role of technological and media factors, which were underrepresented in Persian literature.Ethical ConsiderationCompliance with Ethical Guidelines The present study, as a systematic meta-synthesis, was based entirely on publicly available, published data. Therefore, no direct contact with human subjects was involved, and conventional ethical approval was not required. All cited sources are accurately referenced to ensure academic integrity.Conflict of Interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this article.Funding This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.Acknowledgment The authors would like to thank the reviewers for their constructive comments that significantly improved the quality of this manuscript. https://ppls.ui.ac.ir/article_30323.html The purpose of this research was to identify effect of psychological interventions on forgiveness of women affected by marital infidelity using a meta-analysis approach. The present research was descriptive in terms of purpose, applied in terms of use, and quantitative in terms of data type. The study population included scientific-research articles and master's theses in domestic databases on forgiveness in women affected by marital infidelity from 2013 to 2024, during which 19 studies were entered into the meta-analysis process as samples. To calculate the effect size, Hedges' g and the fixed and random effects model were used, Funnel plot and Duval-Tweed correction, fitting test, and I^2 and Q tests were used. Funnel plot diagram shows limited bias in publications, so that by adding eight studies to the sample, the distribution of meta-analysis studies will be symmetrical. Based on the results of I^2 and Q tests, the heterogeneity of the studies was confirmed. According to Hedges' g index, the effect size and Z calculated for 14 of the 18 interventions were significant. Also, the overall effect size in the fixed model was 1.454 and in the random model was 1.602. The combination of the results of the conducted researches shows the diversity of interventions that have a significant effect on the forgiveness of women affected by marital infidelity. https://ppls.ui.ac.ir/article_30383.html Possible selves represent the cognitive manifestations of an individual’s goals, aspirations, motivations, fearsAbstract Possible selves represent the cognitive manifestations of an individual’s goals, aspirations, motivations, fears, and enduring threats. They serve a motivational function for future behavior, provide a framework for self-assessment, and contribute to behavioral regulation. The present study aimed to test a causal model examining the relationships among possible selves, academic hope, and academic procrastination. This descriptive-correlational research involved 396 male and female students from Kerman Farhangian University during the 2024–2025 academic year, selected through a multi-stage cluster random sampling method. Participants completed three questionnaires Assessing possible selves balance, Academic hope, and Academic procrastination. Structural equation modeling (SEM) was employed to evaluate the proposed model, and the bootstrap method was used to assess the mediating role of academic hope in the relationship between possible selves and academic procrastination. Results indicated that the structural model demonstrated a good fit with the collected data. Specifically, possible selves positively and significantly predicted academic hope and negatively and significantly predicted academic procrastination. Furthermore, academic hope was found to mediate the relationship between possible selves and academic procrastination: higher levels of possible selves were associated with reduced procrastination through increased academic hope, whereas lower levels of possible selves contributed to increased procrastination via decreased academic hope. These findings suggest that enhancing academic hope by fostering possible selves may be an effective strategy to reduce academic procrastination.