دانشگاه اصفهان پژوهش نامه روانشناسی مثبت 2476-4248 10 4 2025 02 19 The Effect of Compassion-Focused Therapy on Resilience and Family Hardiness in Female-Headed Households اثربخشی درمان مبتنی بر شفقت بر تاب‌آوری و سرسختی خانواده در زنان سرپرست خانوار 1 22 29764 10.22108/ppls.2025.144406.2612 FA الهه فلاح تفتی دانشجوی دکتری مشاوره، گروه آموزشی مشاوره، دانشکدۀ روانشناسی و علوم تربیتی، دانشگاه خوارزمی تهران، تهران، ایران. کیانوش زهراکار استاد گروه آموزشی مشاوره، دانشکدۀ روانشناسی و علوم تربیتی، دانشگاه خوارزمی تهران، تهران، ایران. اسماعیل اسدپور دانشیار، گروه آموزشی مشاوره، دانشکدۀ روانشناسی و علوم تربیتی، دانشگاه خوارزمی تهران، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2025 02 17 The number of female heads of households is increasing, they are more vulnerable to the stresses brought to the family, and employment and life responsibilities are more difficult for them than for married women (Asieduet et al., 2024). Female heads of households are at risk of psychosocial factors that reduce their resilience and hardiness. (Hassanzade et al., 2019). Therefore, it is necessary to increase these two psychological characteristics among female heads of households with the help of therapeutic methods. Compassion therapy is one of the therapeutic methods that leads to a reduction in symptoms of depression and anxiety in individuals (Kaveh Farsani et al., 2021). Therefore, the hypotheses of this study are: Compassion-based therapy is effective on the resilience of female-headed households. Compassion-based therapy is effective on the resilience of female-headed households. Method The present study was a quasi-experimental study with a pre-test-post-test design and a follow-up with a control group. After obtaining the code of ethics through the Imam Khomeini Relief Committee (RA), Yazd, Iran by referring to the executive offices, the female heads of households were identified and women who were willing to participate in the project and met the criteria for entry into the project were selected using the available sampling method and then randomly assigned to two groups (experimental group and control group). The Family Resilience Scale and Family Hardiness Index questionnaires were used to obtain pre-test scores (before the intervention) in the experimental group and the control group. Then, compassion-focused therapy (Gilbert, 2014) was implemented in 24 90-minute sessions twice a week for the experimental group, and the control group did not receive any intervention. After the end of the group psychotherapy sessions, both groups were evaluated with the same two questionnaires to obtain post-test scores, and finally, after two months, both groups were evaluated again to obtain follow-up scores. Then, the data were analyzed using SPSS 22 software. For descriptive statistics, mean and standard deviation were used, while for inferential statistics, analysis of variance with repeated measures and Bonferroni post-test were used. Results To analyze the data, analysis of variance with repeated measurements and Bonferroni post hoc test were used. Before presenting the results of the repeated-measures analysis of variance, the assumptions of the parametric tests were tested. Accordingly, the results of the Shapiro-Wilk test indicated that the assumptions of normal distribution of the data in the variable of family resilience and hardiness of female-headed households in the experimental and control groups in the pre-test stage were met (p < 0.05). Also, the assumption of homogeneity of variance was tested by the Levine test, and its results were not significant, which indicated that the assumption of homogeneity of variances was not rejected (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the results of the t-test showed that the difference in the pre-test scores of the experimental and control groups in the dependent variables (family resilience and hardiness in female-headed households) was not significant (p<0.05). Moreover, the results of the Mauchly test indicated that the assumption of sphericity of the data in the variable of family resilience and hardiness of female-headed households was met (p<0.05). Considering the average scores of the different stages of the test, it was observed that in the pre-test stage, the average scores of family resilience and hardiness in the two experimental and control groups did not differ significantly. However, in the post-test and follow-up stages, a significant difference was observed in favor of the experimental group (p<0.05, F=213.798). In regards to family hardiness, the average of the experimental group also increased in the post-test and follow-up, while no significant change was observed in the control group. Therefore, these findings indicated that the two groups did not differ in the pre-test, but in the post-test and follow-up, a significant difference was observed in favor of the experimental group. (p<0.05, F=274.478). Accordingly, the first hypothesis that self-compassion-based therapy would affect increasing resilience was confirmed. The second hypothesis that this therapy would have an effect on increasing family resilience was also confirmed. According to the obtained results, the presentation of the independent variable (Compassion-Focused therapy package) lead to a significant difference in the mean scores of the dependent variables (i.e., family resilience and tenacity) in the post-test stage at the error level of 0.05. The mean scores of family resilience and tenacity variables observed a significant change during the post-test and follow-up stages, regardless of the effect of grouping, which was a significant difference compared to the pre-test. Conclusion This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of compassion-based therapy for improving the resilience and hardiness of the families of female-headed households. According to the results obtained, compassion therapy was effective on the resilience of the experimental group's family. These results are consistent with the research of Taher Karami et al. (2018) and Franco and Christie (2021). The findings of the study also show that compassion therapy was effective on the hardiness of the families of female-headed households. These results are consistent with the research of Mahdavi et al. (2014) and Kohaki et al. (2014). Moiseevitch et al. (2019) showed that people with higher self-compassion have more progress in their goals, more positive affect, and less negative affect, and in general, self-compassion increases adaptation and coping in individuals and hardiness. Among the limitations of this study were the use of an accessible and voluntary sampling method and the existence of special conditions for selecting subjects, the small sample size, and the inability to control variables such as economic status, job, and stressors. Accordingly, it is suggested that future research should use random sampling, control for confounding variables, and use tools such as interviews and observation. Another limitation of this study was that it focused solely on female heads of households covered by the Imam Khomeini Relief Committee (RA) in Yazd, Iran. Therefore, generalizing the results to female heads of households who were not covered by the Imam Khomeini Relief Committee (RA) should be done with caution. The authors recommend that compassion-based treatment also be implemented for female heads of households who are not clients of this organization. Ethical Consideration Compliance with Ethical Guidelines: All ethical considerations were observed, including ensuring the confidentiality of participants’ identities and obtaining informed consent from all participants. Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. Authors’ contributions: All authors contributed to the study. The first author conducted the intervention and data collection and wrote the introduction and method sections. The second author wrote the results and discussion sections and edited the initial draft. Funding: The authors did not receive any financial support for this study. Acknowledgments: We would like to express our deepest gratitude to the Imam Khomeini (RA) Relief Committee of Yazd for their assistance and support in carrying out this research. این پژوهش با هدف اثربخشی شفقت درمانی بر تاب آوری و سرسختی خانواده در زنان سرپرست خانوار تحت پوشش کمیته امداد امام خمینی (ره) انجام شد. روش پژوهش نیمه آزمایشی از نوع پیش‌آزمون-پس آزمون و پیگیری با گروه کنترل بود. جامعه آماری پژوهش زنان سرپرست خانوار کمیته امداد امام خمینی شهرستان یزد در سال 1402 بودند. برای انتخاب نمونه به روش نمونه‌گیری دردسترس 30 زن سرپرست خانوار انتخاب شدند و به صورت تصادفی در گروه‌های آزمایش (15 زن) و کنترل (15 زن) قرار گرفتند. پس از گروه‌بندی و انجام پیش‌آزمون، طی 24 جلسه 90 دقیقه‌ای، درمان مبتنی بر شفقت به گروه آزمایش ارائه شد. ابزار سنجش این پژوهش، پرسشنامه های تاب آوری خانواده و سرسختی خانواده بود. جهت تحلیل داده ها از آزمون تحلیل واریانس با اندازه گیری مکرر وآزمون تعقیبی بن فرونی استفاده شد. نتایج نشان داد که درمان مبتنی بر شفقت باعث بهبود تاب آوری و سرسختی خانواده در زنان سرپرست خانوار می‌شود. بنابراین درمان مبتنی بر شفقت می‌تواند گزینه مناسبی برای زنان سرپرست خانوار باشد تا بتوانند مشفقانه با خود رفتار کند و برخورد مناسب‌تری با فشارها و مسئولیت‌های زندگی داشته باشند.

https://ppls.ui.ac.ir/article_29764_f678f097d1e19bad56779ce3dd24cf59.pdf

دانشگاه اصفهان پژوهش نامه روانشناسی مثبت 2476-4248 10 4 2025 02 19 The Effect of Religious Orientation and Perceived Social Support on Hopefulness Mediated by Sense of Coherence in University Students نقش جهت‌گیری مذهبی و حمایت اجتماعی ادراکشده بر امیدواری با میانجیگری حس انسجام در دانشجویان 23 46 29765 10.22108/ppls.2025.144080.2603 FA محمد حاتمی نژاد دانشجوی دکتری روانشناسی بالینی، گروه روانشناسی، دانشکدۀ روانشناسی و علوم تربیتی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران. اعظم نوفرستی استادیار گروه روانشناسی، دانشکدۀ روانشناسی و علوم تربیتی، دانشگاه تهران، تهران، ایران. Journal Article 2025 01 17 This study aimed to develop a structural model of students’ hopefulness based on religious orientation and perceived social support. The research design was quantitative in nature, and the method was descriptive-correlational using structural equation modeling (SEM). The statistical population consisted of undergraduate students at the University of Lorestan during the 2023–2024 academic year. The sampling method was non-random and convenience-based. The research instruments included Snyder’s Hope Scale (1991), Allport’s Religious Orientation Scale (1987), Antonovsky’s Sense of Coherence Questionnaire (1987), and the Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (1988). Data were analyzed using SPSS version 26 and AMOS version 24. The results showed that religious orientation (β = 0.25, p < 0.001) and perceived social support (β = 0.46, p < 0.001) had a significant direct effect on hopefulness. Moreover, sense of coherence partially mediated the relationship between religious orientation and perceived social support with hopefulness (β = 0.15, p < 0.001). Overall, the findings indicated that intrinsic religious orientation enhances hopefulness by strengthening the sense of coherence, while perceived social support fosters a sense of belonging and psychological security, thus promoting a positive outlook on the future. These results highlight the pivotal role of sense of coherence in explaining the relationship between religious and social factors and hopefulness. It is recommended that intervention programs be implemented to strengthen intrinsic religious orientation and expand supportive social networks in order to enhance hopefulness and mental health among university students. این پژوهش با هدف تدوین مدل ساختاری امیدواری دانشجویان بر اساس جهت‌گیری مذهبی و حمایت اجتماعی ادراک‌شده انجام شد. طرح پژوهش از نظر ماهیت کمّی است. روش پژوهش از نوع توصیفی-همبستگی بود که از طریق مدل‌سازی معادلات ساختاری انجام شد. جامعۀ آماری در این پژوهش شامل دانشجویان مقطع کارشناسی دانشگاه لرستان در سال تحصیلی 1402-1403 بود. روش نمونه‌گیری در این پژوهش در دسترس و غیرتصادفی بود. ابزارهای پژوهش شامل پرسشنامۀ امیدواری، مقیاس جهت‌گیری مذهبی، پرسشنامۀ حس انسجام و مقیاس چندبُعدی حمایت اجتماعی ادراک‌شده بودند. داده‌ها با استفاده از آزمون‌های آماری همبستگی پیرسون، تحلیل مسیر و تحلیل میانجی‌گری به روش بوت‌استراپ تجزیه‌وتحلیل شد. نتایج نشان داد جهت‌گیری مذهبی و حمایت اجتماعی ادراک‌شده تأثیر مستقیم معناداری بر امیدواری دارند. همچنین، حس انسجام به‌ عنوان متغیر میانجی جزئی، نقش جهت‌گیری مذهبی و حمایت اجتماعی با امیدواری را تقویت می‌کند. به طور کلی، یافته‌ها نشان داد جهت‌گیری مذهبی درونی با تقویت حس انسجام، امیدواری را افزایش می‌دهد، در حالی ‌که حمایت اجتماعی ادراک‌شده با ایجاد حس تعلق و امنیت روانی، دیدگاه مثبت به آینده را تقویت می‌کند. این نتایج نشان‌دهندۀ نقش کلیدی حس انسجام در تبیین روابط بین عوامل مذهبی و اجتماعی با امیدواری است. پیشنهاد می‌شود برنامه‌های مداخله‌ای با هدف تقویت جهت‌گیری مذهبی درونی و گسترش شبکه‌های اجتماعی حمایت‌کننده برای ارتقای امیدواری و سلامت روان دانشجویان اجرا شوند.

https://ppls.ui.ac.ir/article_29765_c2588b369b486b17178578cb7e3b5c0d.pdf

دانشگاه اصفهان پژوهش نامه روانشناسی مثبت 2476-4248 10 4 2025 02 19 The Role of Parent-Child Relationships on Altruistic Behavior in Adolescent Boys: The Mediation of Social Belonging, Social Trust, Gratitude, and Interpersonal Sensitivity نقش روابط والد-فرزندی بر رفتار نوع‌دوستانه با میانجی‌گری تعلق اجتماعی، اعتماد اجتماعی، قدردانی و حساسیت بین‌فردی در نوجوانان پسر 47 72 29793 10.22108/ppls.2025.142007.2545 FA حامد کمالی کارشناسی ارشد روانشناسی عمومی، دانشکدۀ علوم تربیتی و روانشناسی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران.. ناهید اکرمی دانشیار گروه روانشناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم تربیتی و روانشناسی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران. حسینعلی مهرابی استادیار گروه روانشناسی، دانشکدۀ علوم تربیتی و روانشناسی، دانشگاه اصفهان، اصفهان، ایران. Journal Article 2024 07 01 The current study was designed to determine the appropriateness of the altruistic behavior model based on parent-child relationships, interpersonal sensitivity, social belonging, social trust, and gratitude among male adolescents. The statistical population of the research included all adolescent boys aged 15 to 21 years in Isfahan, Iran in 2021, of which 300 people were selected by the available sampling method. Data in the context of virtual space and through the link of Virtual Questionnaires of Altruistic Behavior, Parent Relations (father-mother)-Child, Interpersonal Sensitivity Questionnaire, Social Trust Questionnaire, Social Belongingness Questionnaire and Gratitude Questionnaire. Six questions form were collected. The results of the analysis of the model indicated that the model had a good fit and also among the variables in the research, the father-child relationship indirectly through the mediator variable of gratitude and the mother-child relationship indirectly through the mediator variables. Appreciation, social belonging, and social trust were related to altruistic behavior variable. In this way, improving parent-child interactions in the area of gratitude (for the father) and social belonging, social trust, and gratitude (for the mother) can be effective in increasing altruistic behavior. Based on this, it can be said that parent-child relationships are one of the effective variables in the growth and development of children and adolescents, as a platform for the formation of traits and effective factors in the emergence of children's altruistic behavior. Introduction Recent societal developments and crises have led to a decline in social interactions and shifts in people’s priorities, impacting value systems and intergenerational relationships. One major consequence is the noticeable decline in altruism, especially among younger generations. Altruistic behavior—characterized by empathy, cooperation, and support for others—can be shaped by the quality of parent-child relationships, which lay the foundation for emotional and social development. Children with secure parental bonds tend to exhibit healthier social behaviors, while those with poor connections may struggle with trust and social adjustment. Additionally, interpersonal sensitivity, social belonging, social trust, and gratitude play key roles in shaping altruistic behavior. Sensitivity to social feedback, feelings of connection to others, trust in social relationships, and gratitude all contribute to the likelihood of engaging in altruistic acts. This body of research examines how these interrelated factors predict altruistic behavior in individuals. Method This study was descriptive-correlational in which the role of parent-child relationships in predicting altruistic behaviors with the mediation of social belonging, social trust, appreciation and interpersonal sensitivity was examined in the form of a conceptual model. The statistical population of the research included all male teenagers aged 15 to 21 in Isfahan and Barkhar cities in Iran in 2021. According to the purpose of the research, which is to evaluate the fit of the proposed model, at least 260 people (Homan, 2019) were considered among 15-21-year-old male teenagers in the cities of Isfahan and Barkhor, Iran, but due to the possibility of attrition, the questionnaires were included among 300 teenagers. The boy was distributed. First, 300 boys between the ages of 15 and 21 from the cities of Isfahan and Barkhar were selected based on the available sampling method (through the first and second secondary boys' schools) and a questionnaire was provided to them. Then, the questionnaires were scored and SPSS version 23 and AMOS version 23 software were used to determine the relationship between the variables affecting altruistic behaviors and to analyze the research data as well as to check the overall fit of the proposed model. Results In this study, 270 individuals were evaluated to test the hypotheses and the proposed model. The average age of participants was 16.71 years with a standard deviation of 1.51. Additionally, since the skewness and kurtosis indices fall within the ±2 range, the distributions of scores for all research variables are considered normal. Model fit indices such as χ²/df, GFI (.984), IFI (.985), RMSEA (.073), and NFI (.974) indicate that the revised model—after removing non-significant paths (e.g., parent-child relationship to altruistic behavior, father-child to social interest, etc.)—has good fit. Direct effects hypotheses were then tested. The results showed that the mother–child relationship had significant direct effects on Gratitude (β = .281, p < .001), Social belonging (β = .381, p < .001), and Social trust (β = .250, p = .008). The father–child relationship had a direct effect only on: Gratitude (β = .189, p = .001), but not directly on altruistic behavior. Altruistic behavior was significantly predicted by: Gratitude (β = .242, p < .001), Social belonging (β = .310, p < .001), Social trust (β = .135, p = .014), Interpersonal sensitivity (β = .170, p < .001). Indirect effects: The father–child relationship influenced altruistic behavior only through gratitude (p = .004). The mother–child relationship had significant indirect effects on altruism through Gratitude (p = .002), Social belonging (p = .001), and Social trust (p = .043). Model fit indices (e.g., CFI = 0.984, RMSEA = 0.073) confirmed that the revised model had a good fit. Overall, the findings highlight that strong maternal bonds and emotional-social factors, such as gratitude, belonging, and trust, significantly contribute to the development of altruistic behavior in adolescents. Conclusion According to the results of the present research, parent-child relationships, interpersonal sensitivity, social belonging, social trust and gratitude have an effect on the altruistic behavior of teenagers and have been confirmed. This finding is in agreement with the research results of Wu et al. (2016) and with part of the research findings of Sayidi et al. Wray-lake Flanagan (2012) is congruent. Based on the findings of the research, the father-child relationship through gratitude is related to altruistic behavior and the mother-child relationship through gratitude, social trust, and social belonging is associated with the occurrence of altruistic behavior. It seems that the strong position of the indirect mother-child relationship (against father-child interaction) in the tendency to altruistic actions can be rooted in the early stages of a child's life, which is associated with a deep emotional bond and the relationship between a child and a mother (attachment). The mental association of the researched community about the mother's role is linked with some concepts and characteristics such as love, affection and security. As a result, the interaction and relationship between parents and mothers can effectively form the basis for the formation of social belonging and social trust in children. According to Erikson's psychosocial development theory, in the first stage, if the mother and the main caregiver adequately respond to the child's physical and psychological needs (love, security and affection), it will foster a sense of trust in him and cause the child's attitude about himself and the world around him. be formed positively (Afgri & Ghasemi, 2015). According to Fero et al. (2019), children in families whose members have appreciative behaviors have a perception of gratitude and therefore show more empathy, forgiveness, and helpful actions in social situations. In the current model, the mediating role of interpersonal sensitivity in the relationship between parent-child interactions and altruistic behavior were not confirmed, and it seems that the inconsistency of the interpersonal sensitivity component with the social attitude of the researched society is the reason for removing the mediating role of this variable in the current model. Finally, according to the results of the study, the mother played a role in the formation of the altruistic behavior of the researched society through more mediating factors, which can indicate the greater importance of the mother's role in the formation of altruistic behavior. Ethical Consideration Compliance with Ethical Guidelines: All ethical issues such as informed consent and confidentiality of participants' identity were respected. Authors' Contributions: All authors contributed to the study. The first author contributed to the conception and design of the study, as well as the acquisition, analysis, and interpretation of data, drafting the article, and writing the entire manuscript. The second author contributed to developing the study design and to final approval of the version to be submitted. Both authors contributed to the article and approved the submitted version. Conflict of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest for this study. Funding: This study was conducted with no financial support and is part of the M.A. thesis of the first author. Acknowledgments: The authors would like to thank all participants in the study. پژوهش حاضر با هدف تعیین نقش روابط والد-فرزندی بر رفتار نوع‌دوستانه با میانجی‌گری حساسیت بین‌فردی، تعلق اجتماعی، اعتماد اجتماعی و قدردانی در نوجوانان پسر طراحی ‌شد. روش پژوهش توصیفی از نوع همبستگی بود. جامعۀ آماری پژوهش شامل کلیۀ نوجوانان پسر 15 تا 21سالۀ شهر اصفهان در سال 1400 بود که از بین آنها 300 نفر به روش نمونه‌گیری در‌ دسترس انتخاب شدند. داده‌ها از طریق پرسشنامه‌های رفتار نوع‌دوستانه، روابط والد (پدر-مادر)-فرزند، پرسشنامۀ حساسیت بین‌فردی، پرسشنامۀ اعتماد اجتماعی، پرسشنامۀ احساس تعلق اجتماعی و پرسشنامۀ قدردانی-فرم 6سؤالی جمع‌آوری شد. نتایج تحلیل مدل به‌ طورکلی حاکی از آن است که مدل دارای برازش است و همچنین، از بین متغیر‎‌های موجود در پژوهش، رابطۀ پدر-فرزند به ‌طور غیرمستقیم از طریق متغیر میانجی قدردانی و رابطۀ مادر-فرزند هم به طور غیرمستقیم از طریق متغیرهای میانجی قدردانی، تعلق اجتماعی و اعتماد اجتماعی با متغیر رفتار نوع‌دوستانه رابطه دارد. به ‌این ‌ترتیب، تعاملات پدر و مادر با فرزند به واسطۀ قدردانی (برای پدر) و تعلق اجتماعی، اعتماد اجتماعی و قدردانی (برای مادر) می‌تواند در افزایش رفتار نوع‌دوستانه مؤثر باشد. بر این اساس، می‌توان گفت روابط والدین و فرزند یکی از متغیرهای مؤثر در رشد و تکامل کودکان و نوجوانان به عنوان بستری برای شکل‌گیری صفات و عوامل مؤثر در پیدایش رفتار نوع‌دوستانه کودکان است.

https://ppls.ui.ac.ir/article_29793_2db1b134220d6c35991f8773248feaaf.pdf

دانشگاه اصفهان پژوهش نامه روانشناسی مثبت 2476-4248 10 4 2025 02 19 The Effectiveness of Marital Empowerment Program Based on Positive Schemas for Imporving Marital Satisfaction and Differentiation of Couples اثربخشی برنامۀ توانمندسازی زناشویی مبتنی بر طرحواره‌های مثبت بر رضایت زناشویی و تمایزیافتگی زوجین 73 100 29766 10.22108/ppls.2025.143422.2587 FA پگاه مهرطلب دانشجوی دکتری مشاوره،گروه مشاوره، واحد اراک،دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی ، اراک، ایران. حسین داودی دانشیار مشاوره،گروه مشاوره، واحد خمین ،دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی ، خمین، ایران. داود تقوایی دانشیار روانشناسی،گروه روانشناسی، واحد اراک، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی ،اراک، ایران. Journal Article 2024 12 03 The putpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of the marital empowerment program based on positive schemas for improving marital satisfaction and differentiation among couples. The research method was quasi-experimental using a pre-test, post-test and follow-up design with a control group. In this study, from among couples residing in Arak, Iran 2024, 24 couples were selected using convenience sampling and were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control groups. Data collection was performed using Enrich's Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire, the Skowron and Friedlander's self Differentiation Questionnaire, and the Young Schema Questionnaire- short form. The couples in training group participated in the educational sessions of the marital empowerment program based on positive schemas for 11, 90 minute sessions. The results of multivariate variance analysis showed that the training of the marital empowerment program based on positive schemas had a significant effect on marital satisfaction and couples' differentiation, and this result was stable in the 45-day follow-up period. Therefore, the marital empowerment program has the necessary validity to increase the differentiation and marital satisfaction of couples as a first-level preventive program. Introduction Given the importance of the family institution, therapists constantly seek to utilize various interventions, including schema therapy and other schema-based interventions, to help couples achieve satisfying and stable relationships. Although most of these interventions primarily focus on early maladaptive or negative schemas (Stevens & Roediger, 2023), in 2012, Lockwood and Perris introduced the concept of early adaptive or positive schemas as a positive complement to early maladaptive schemas in Young's (2003) approach. Considering that, on the one hand, research findings indicate that these schemas have a significant role in the efficiency and psychological well-being of individuals. On the other hand, positive clinical psychology emphasizes that interventions focused on enhancing positive aspects can be as successful as interventions based on reducing negative aspects in improving psychological problems and mental health issues (Louis et al, 2018), The aim of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of a marital empowerment program based on positive schemas on marital satisfaction and differentiation. The research hypotheses of the study were: Marital empowerment program based on positive schemas is effective on couples' marital satisfaction. Marital empowerment program based on positive schemas is effective on couples' differentiation. Method This research is quasi-experimental with a pre-test-post-test design with a non-equivalent control group and a 45-day follow-up period. The statistical population included all couples residing in Arak, Iran, in 2024, from whom 24 couples were selected through convenience sampling and according to the inclusion criteria of the study and were randomly assigned to two experimental and control groups (12 couples in each group). In this study, three questionnaires were used: the Enrich marital satisfaction questionnaire, the Self-differentiation questionnaire and the short form of the Early maladaptive schemas questionnaire. Members of the experimental and control groups completed these questionnaires in three stages: The pre-test stage, before the start of the sessions; the post-test stage, one week after the last training session; and the follow-up stage, 45 days after the end of the sessions. The couples in the experimental group participated in 11 sessions of 90 minutes in the training sessions of the marital empowerment program. These sessions were held weekly and in groups. The marital empowerment program based on positive schemas is a level one preventive program that is based on the components of positive schemas identified by Mehrtalab et al. (2024) and using the method of documentary study and studying the theoretical foundations and available sources about positive schemas developed by the researchers and its content validity coefficient was calculated using the Lawshe method 0.93. Results The results of the Shapiro-Wilk test showed that the scores of the differentiation variable in the education group (z=0.90, df=10, p=0.23) and the control group (z=0.93, df=10, p=0.53), as well as the marital satisfaction variable in the training group (z=0.95, df=10, p=.87) and the control group (z=0.96, df=10, p=.83) had a normal distribution. The results of Levene's test showed that the significance level for the differentiation variable in the pre-test (F=0.33, df1,2=1/18 , p=0.57), post-test (F=1.65, df1,2=1/18, p=0.21) and follow-up (F=0.69, df1,2=1/18, p=0.89) and for the marital satisfaction variable in the pre-test (F=0.01, df1,2=1/18, p=0.21), post-test (F=0.002, df1,2=1/18, p=0.91) and follow-up (F=0.03, df1,2=1/18, p=0.84), which is higher than 0.05 and indicates homogeneity of variance between groups. The results of Mauchly's test on within-group sphericity showed that for the differentiation variable (Mauchly's w=0.96, chi-square=0.66, df=2, p=0.71) and for the marital satisfaction variable (Mauchly's w=0.93, chi-square=1.21, df=2, p=0.54), it can be concluded that sphericity is assumed. The results of the Box,s M test also showed that the null hypothesis of homogeneity of the covariance matrix had been observed (Box,s M=38.70, F=1.19, df1,2=21 and 671191, p=0.25). The results of the Pillai's Trace test showed that there was a significant multivariate effect for time (pre-test, post-test and follow-up) (F4,15=60/85, V=0.94, p>0.001). There was also a significant multivariate effect between groups (training group and control group) (F2,17=51.24, V=0.86, p>0.001) and the results for the interaction between groups and time also showed a significant multivariate effect (F4,15=54.27, V=0.94, p>0.001). The results of the within-group analysis of variance also showed a significant difference in time (pre-test, post-test, and follow-up) for the differentiation variable (F1/92,34/66=76.97, p>0.001, V=0.81) and marital satisfaction (F1/87,33/67=51.36, p>0.001, V=0.74). There was also a significant interaction between measurement times (pre-test, post-test, and follow-up) and groups (training and control) for the differentiation variable (F1/92,34/66=42.27, p>0.001, V=0.70) and marital satisfaction (F1/87,33/67 =54.77, p>0.001, V=0.75). The mean and standard deviation of the dependent variables of differentiation and marital satisfaction of couples in the training group and the control group in the three time periods of pre-test, post-test, and follow-up are shown in Table 1. Pairwise comparison of the means and adjusted standard deviations of the dependent variables according to the separation of measurement times are presented in Table 2. It shows that there was a significant difference in the differentiation and marital satisfaction variables between the mean scores of the pre-test and post-test stages, but there was no significant difference between the mean scores of the post-test and follow-up stages of the differentiation and marital satisfaction variables. Table 1 Mean and Standard Error of Interaction between Group and Time for Dependent Variables Differentiation Marital satisfaction group Time M SD M SD training Pre-test 140.25 1.23 139.50 0.70 Post test 158.90 1.40 158.55 0.81 Follow up 155.70 1.61 151.30 1.45 control Pre-test 142.10 1.23 140.45 0.70 Post test 145.10 1.40 139.65 0.81 Follow up 144 1.61 143.05 1.45 Table 2 Pairwise Comparison of Mean and Adjusted Standard Deviation of Variables Dependent on the Separation of Measurement Times Variables group MD SD P Differentiation Pre-test – Post test -10.82 1 0.001 Pre-test– Follow up -8.67 0.91 0.001 Post test – Follow up 2.15 0.84 0.06 Marital satisfaction Pre-test – Post test -9.12 0.84 0.001 Pre test –Follow up -7.2 0.93 0.001 Post test – Follow up 1.92 1.05 0.25 Conclusion The aim of the present study was to investigate the effectiveness of a marital empowerment program based on positive schemas for enhancing marital satisfaction and differentiation among couples. The results showed that the marital empowerment program based on positive schemas had a significant effect on marital satisfaction and differentiation of couples in the training group compared to the control group, and this effect was also stable in the follow-up phase. The lack of similar research on the effectiveness of positive schemas on components related to marital life makes it difficult to compare the results of the present study with previous research. However, the effectiveness of the marital empowerment program on the level of marital satisfaction of couples can be explained by the fact that this program is based on the basic psychological needs and positive schemas of self-acceptance, stable attachment, trust, empathetic attention, self-control, self-direction, success, self-confidence, assertiveness, health and safety, healthy boundaries, self-compassion, and self-care, which the role of each of schemas in increasing marital satisfaction of couples has been confirmed based on theoretical and research foundations. In addition, the results of the research indicated the effectiveness of the training of the marital empowerment program based on positive schemas on the differentiation of couples. In explaining this finding, it can be said that, according to Bowen (2000), differentiation, as the key to mental health, expresses the ability of individual to create a balance between rational and emotional processes on the one hand and independence and intimacy on the other hand; any factor that can affect the intrapsychic and interpersonal dimensions of differentiation will be effective on the level of differentiation of couples. Accordingly, the positive schemas of stable attachment, basic health and safety, healthy boundaries, self-control, self-direction, and self-compassion have been effective in increasing couples' differentiation by affecting the intrapsychic and interpersonal dimensions of differentiation. Therefore, it can be said that the couples empowerment program emphasizes and focuses on forming and strengthening a mature, empathetic, and accepting mindset and attitude in couples through activating and strengthening positive schemas. According to the results obtained, this program has the necessary educational validity to increase the differentiation and marital satisfaction of couples as a level one preventive program. Among the limitations of the current study, we can point to the difficult access to the target statistical population due to the reluctance of men to participate in group training sessions, the use of convenience sampling, and, as a result, the limitation of the research sample to volunteer couples residing in the city of Arak. Accordingly, it is suggested that, in order to increase the generalizability of the results, the effectiveness of the marital empowerment program based on positive schemas be evaluated in different research samples. Ethical Consideration Compliance with Ethical Guidelines: All ethical issues were compiled based on ethical committee. Authors’ Contributions: This article is extracted from the doctoral thesis of the first author. Extraction, preparation, editing of the article was done by the first author. The second and third authors are the supervisor and thesis adviser, respectively Conflict of Interest: The authos declare no conflict of interests. Funding: The study had no financial support. Acknowledgment: The authors would like to thank all participants for their time and contribution to the Study. هدف پژوهش حاضر بررسی اثربخشی برنامۀ توانمندسازی زناشویی مبتنی بر طرحوارههای مثبت بر رضایت زناشویی و تمایزیافتگی زوجین بود. روش پژوهش نیمه‌آزمایشی با طرح پیش‌آزمون، پس‌آزمون و پیگیری با گروه گواه بود. در این پژوهش، از بین زوجین ساکن اراک در زمستان سال 1402، 24 زوج به روش نمونهگیری در دسترس انتخاب و به روش تصادفی در دو گروه آزمایش و گواه جای‌دهی شدند. برای گردآوری دادهها از پرسشنامۀ رضایت زناشویی انریچ، پرسشنامۀ تمایزیافتگی خود اسکورن و فریدلندر و فرم کوتاه پرسشنامۀ طرحوارههای ناسازگار اولیۀ یانگ استفاده شد. زوجین گروه آموزش به مدت 11 جلسۀ 90دقیقهای در جلسات آموزشی برنامۀ توانمندسازی زناشویی مبتنی بر طرحوارههای مثبت شرکت کردند. نتایج تحلیل واریانس چندمتغیری نشان داد آموزش برنامۀ توانمندسازی زناشویی مبتنی بر طرحوارههای مثبت بر رضایت زناشویی و تمایزیافتگی زوجین اثربخشی معناداری داشته است و این نتیجه در دورۀ پیگیری 45روزه نیز پایدار بود. بنابراین، میتوان گفت برنامۀ توانمندسازی زناشویی از روایی لازم برای افزایش تمایزیافتگی و رضایت زناشویی زوجین به عنوان یک برنامۀ پیشگیرانه سطح اول برخوردار است.

https://ppls.ui.ac.ir/article_29766_6dc844a310de018c79906e2a1e2f96fb.pdf

دانشگاه اصفهان پژوهش نامه روانشناسی مثبت 2476-4248 10 4 2025 02 19 The Effectiveness of the Training a Compassionate Mind on Distress Tolerance, Boldness, Self-Compassion and Empathy of Teenagers اثربخشی آموزش ذهن دلسوز بر تحمل پریشانی، جرئتمندی، خوددلسوزی و همدلی نوجوانان 101 126 29680 10.22108/ppls.2025.143783.2594 FA طاهره بشیری ابرغانی کارشناس ارشد گروه روانشناسی ،واحد اصفهان (خوراسگان)، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، اصفهان، ایران 0009-0005-3261-2399 منصوره بهرامی پور استادیار گروه روانشناسی، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی،واحد اصفهان (خوراسگان)، اصفهان، ایران Journal Article 2024 12 25 The aim of the research was to examine the effectiveness of the compassionate mind cultivation strategy on distress tolerance, boldness, self-compassion, and empathy. The researcher used a three-stage semi-experimental design with two groups (control and experimental). The research population included all teenagers aged 16-18 in Isfahan City in the spring of 1403. Using the multi-stage random sampling method, 40 teenagers were randomly selected and assigned into two experimental and control groups. The experimental group was trained in the strategy of cultivating a compassionate mind, based on the protocol developed by Irons and Beaumont. The research tools include Distress Tolerance, Self-Expression, Self-Compassion Short Form, and Empathy Questionnaire. The data were analyzed using variance analysis with repeated measures. The results showed that the strategy of developing a compassionate mind is effective on distress tolerance, boldness, self-compassion, and empathy of 16-18-year-old participants. As a result, the promotion and cultivation of a compassionate mind leads to the improvement of distress tolerance, boldness, self-compassion, and empathy, as well as the protection of adolescents against psychological damage such as anxiety and depression. Introduction Emotional maturity and distress tolerance are variables that can influence social, emotional, and academic adjustment in adolescents. Training and enhancing boldness skills can also boost self-efficacy (Rahbari et al., 2019). In contrast, using the compassionate mind, one can cultivate a compassionate focus of attention, thoughts, and feelings towards oneself and others (Hatami-Musaabadi et al., 2022). Empathy is one of the other important variables in adolescence, which directs individuals’ interactions in the right way( Mesbehi et al., 2019 ). Education of a sympathetic mind increases compassion and fosters sensitivity to suffering and others, along with adherence to relief. This research was in line with responding to the following hypotheses: 1- Compassionate mind training is effective on tolerance. 2- Compassionate mind training is effective on courage. 3- Compassionate mind training is effective on self-compassion. 4- Compassionate mind training is effective on empathy. Method: The research has a semi-experimental pre-test-post-test design with a control group and a 45-day follow-up phase. The statistical population consisted of adolescents who were aged 16-18 from Isfahan schools in the Spring of 2024. The assessments include: Distress Tolerance Questionnaire (Vesren et al., 2015): This Scale is a self report self assessment measure constructed by Simon and Gaher (2005), with 15 items and 4 sub scales. Assertiveness Questionnaire: The questionnaire was built by Grimbel, rich (1975) and consists of 40 questions and dimensions of assertiveness. Child and Adolescent Empathy Questionnaire: This scale was designed by Vesren et al (2015) and has 12 questions and three subscales of cognitive empathy, emotional empathy, and pain. Self-Compassion Questionnaire, Short Form: The scale of 12 items was constructed by Neff et al. (2011), which consists of six factors against each other. Results The data were analyzed by descriptive (mean and standard deviation) and inferential statistics (repeated-measures analysis of variance test) using SPSS Software, version 26. Descriptive findings showed that the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used to examine the normality of the distribution. The results showed a p>0/05 for both groups in the pretest. To examine the assumption of equality of variances, the Levine test was used. The results show the following values: the distress tolerance at pretest (F = 2.47, p < 0.124), posttest (F = 2.59, p< 0.098), and follow-up ( F = 1.38, p < 0.131); the assertiveness in pretest (F = 0.188, p < 0.667), posttest (F = 0.157, p < 0.694), and follow-up (F = 0.587, p < 0.3); self-compassion at pretest (F = 0.013, p< 0.911), posttest (F = 101.2, p < 0.155) and follow-up (p < 0.221, F = 1.55) and empathy at pretest (F=0.005, p<0.944), post-test (F=0.143, p<0.707) and follow-up (F=1.38, p<0.897). This shows that the assumption of equality of variances has not been rejected. The results of the Machli test to examine the assumption of uniformity of covariances or equality of covariances with total covariance have not been rejected either. Table 1 The Results of the Analysis of Between-Subject and Within-Subject Effects in Research Variables F P Statistical power DF sum of squares Source Variable 6/64 0/014 0/809 1 2604/008 Group Distress Tolerance 41/116 0/001 1/000 1 1640/85 Effect of time 48/144 0/001 1/000 1 1921/31 Time × Group Effect 7/33 0/01 0/820 1 11001/675 Group Courage 106/292 0/001 1/000 1 8858/60 Effect of time 81/236 0/001 1/000 1 6770/40 Time × Group Effect 13/17 0/001 0/943 1 1725/208 Group Self-Compassion 72/988 0/001 1/000 1/000 1006/017 Effect of time 80/838 0/001 1/000 1/000 1114/217 Time × Group Effect 16/28 0/001 0/976 1 1680/008 Group Empathy 40/967 0/001 1/000 1/000 1398/067 Effect of time 19/412 0/001 0/990 1/000 662/467 Time × Group Effect Based on the findings in Table 1, in the between-subjects analysis, the mean scores of the variables of distress tolerance, assertiveness, self-compassion, and empathy in the experimental and control groups were significantly different (p<0.05). Conclusion The results showed that compassionate mind training is effective on adolescents' distress tolerance. The results are consistent with the results of the studies by Shaw and Keeley (2024), Hosseini Mehr et al. (2021), and Saeidi Nia and Azmoudeh (2024). Compassionate mind training protects individuals from performance problems associated with stress and anxiety caused by adolescent crises (Hosseini Mehr et al., 2021). In fact, compassionate mind training acts like mental physiotherapy, neutralizing the threat system and activating the relief system; as a result of the transformation of this system, the individual's resilience increases and ultimately leads to an improvement in the level of distress tolerance. The results showed that compassionate mind training is effective on adolescents' assertiveness. This finding is consistent with the study by Smith et al. (2020). The findings could be explained by Diedrich et al. (2014). According to their approach, compassionate mind training acts as a positive emotion regulation style, reduces the individual's negative emotions, and replaces them with positive emotions. The results showed that compassionate mind training is effective on adolescents' self-compassion. This finding is consistent with the results of Marshall et al.'s (2020) study. This finding could be explained by the fact that training and exercises aimed at increasing self-compassion in adolescents can be effective in improving various forms of adolescent distress and lead to positive outcomes such as strengthening self-compassion and compassion (Gilbert, 2010) and ultimately provide a reason for the growth of warmth, acceptance, care, and appropriate attitudes towards internal experiences (Braehler et al, 2013). The results also showed that compassionate mind training is effective on adolescents' empathy. This finding is consistent with the studies by Khashanian et al. (2023) and Steinvik et al. (2024). In compassionate mind training, adolescents learn not to avoid or suppress their painful emotions so that they can first recognize their experience and feel compassion for it. Ethical Consideration Compliance with Ethical Guidelines: All confidentiality was enforced. Authors’ Contributions: All authors contributed to the study. The first author conducted the intervention and data collection and wrote the introduction and method sections. The second author wrote the results and discussion sections and edited the initial draft. Conflict of Interest: The authors declared no conflicts of interest Funding: The study had no financial support Acknowledgment: The authors thank all participants for their time and contribution to this study این پژوهش با هدف اثربخشی آموزش ذهن دلسوز بر تحمل پریشانی، جرئتمندی، خوددلسوزی و همدلی نوجوانان انجام شده است. روش پژوهش از نوع نیمه‌آزمایشی از نوع پیش‌آزمون-پس‌آزمون به همراه مرحلۀ پیگیری 45روزه با گروه کنترل بود. جامعۀ پژوهش شامل کلیۀ نوجوانان 16-18سالۀ شهر اصفهان در بازۀ زمانی بهار 1403 بود. برای انتخاب نمونه، ابتدا با استفاده از روش نمونه‌گیری تصادفی چندمرحله‌ای، تعداد 40 نفر نوجوان انتخاب و به طور تصادفی در گروه گواه و آزمایش بیست نفر گمارده شدند. گروه آزمایش تحت آموزش ذهن دلسوز بر اساس پروتکل پرورش ذهن دلسوز آیرنز و بیوماونت قرار گرفت. ابزارهای پژوهش شامل پرسشنامۀ تحمل پریشانی، پرسشنامۀ ابراز وجود، پرسشنامۀ خوددلسوزی فرم کوتاه و پرسشنامۀ همدلی کودکان و نوجوانان بودند. به‌ منظور تجزیه‌وتحلیل داده‌ها از تحلیل واریانس استفاده شد. یافته‌ها حاکی از آن بود که آموزش ذهن دلسوز بر تحمل پریشانی، جرئتمندی، خوددلسوزی و همدلی نوجوانان تأثیر مثبت و معنادار داشته است و این تأثیر در مرحلۀ پیگیری بعد از 45 روز همچنان پایدار بود. در نتیجه، ارتقا و پرورش ذهن دلسوز موجبات بهبود تحمل پریشانی، جرئتمندی، خوددلسوزی و همدلی و نیز مصون‌سازی نوجوانان در برابر آسیب‌های روان‌شناختی مانند اضطراب و افسردگی را فراهم می‌کند.

https://ppls.ui.ac.ir/article_29680_bfbe69bf16d5b8b66f45cd23108d8e78.pdf

دانشگاه اصفهان پژوهش نامه روانشناسی مثبت 2476-4248 10 4 2025 02 19 Why is the Oppressed Sometimes Blamed Instead of the Oppressor? Predicting Victim Blaming from Everyday Sadism with the Mediation of Sadistic Pleasure and Lack of Empathy in Adults چرا گاهی مظلوم به‌جای ظالم سرزنش می‌شود؟ پیش‌بینی سرزنش قربانی از روی سادیسم همگانی با میانجی‌گری لذت سادیستیک و کمبود همدلی در بزرگسالان 127 152 29679 10.22108/ppls.2025.142749.2568 FA ابراهیم احمدی استادیارگروه روان شناسی، واحد بویین زهرا، دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی، بویین زهرا، ایران Journal Article 2024 09 10 So far, the only theory that has explained the harmful phenomenon of blaming innocent victims is the Theory of Belief in Justice. However, because some findings do not support this explanation, the current study proposed and tested another explanation for this phenomenon: everyday sadism. There is a hypothesis that everyday sadism, through the mediation of sadistic pleasure and lack of empathy, has a positive relationship with victim blaming. To test the hypothesis, among 30000 subscribers of the Hamrahe Avval and Irancell in Tehran and Karaj, 442 participants with an average age of 35 years (202 men) were selected using convenience sampling. In a correlational design, everyday sadism was measured by a 15-item version of the Comprehensive Assessment of Sadistic Tendencies (CAST), whereas victim blaming, sadistic pleasure, and empathy with the victim were measured using the methods in previous studies. Regression coefficients showed that everyday sadism, even after controlling for belief in justice and three dark personality traits, has a predicted victim blaming. Conditional process modelling showed that everyday sadism has increased victim blaming through sadistic pleasure and lack of empathy, such that the direct effect of everyday sadism on victim blaming was small, but its indirect effect was large. Based on these findings, suggestions have been made to reduce the phenomenon of victim blaming. Introduction This study explores an alternative explanation to the well-established belief in a just world theory (Lerner, 1980) to find out why people blame innocent victims of war, bullying, and sexual assault. While belief in a just world suggests that people blame victims to restore their sense of justice (Dawtry et al., 2020; Hafer, 2000), the authors propose that everyday sadism—a personality trait characterized by deriving pleasure from others’ suffering and lacking empathy—may also lead to victim blaming. Drawing on prior research linking everyday sadism to aggression, dehumanization, and impaired moral judgment (Buckels et al., 2013, 2019; Paulhus, 2014; Rogers et al., 2018), the study hypothesizes that individuals high in everyday sadism are more likely to blame victims due to reduced empathy and increased sadistic pleasure. Using conditional process modeling, the study tested this hypothesis with everyday sadism as the predictor, empathy and sadistic pleasure as mediators, and victim blaming as the outcome, while controlling for belief in a just world, psychopathy, Machiavellianism, and narcissism (Moshagen et al., 2018; Paulhus & Williams, 2002). Method This study included 442 participants recruited via convenience sampling, with a mean age of 35.03 years (SD = 5.92; age range: 19–57). Among the participants, 202 ones were identified as male. In this correlational design, everyday sadism was assessed using the 15-item Comprehensive Assessment of Sadistic Tendencies (CAST; Buckels & Paulhus, 2014). Victim blaming was measured following the methodology by Sassenrath et al. (2023) and Modesto and Pilati (2017), in which participants read six short stories portraying innocent individuals becoming victims at school, work, or in society, and subsequently rated their tendency to blame the victim. Sadistic pleasure was evaluated after each story through participants’ agreement (1 = strongly disagree to 7 = strongly agree) with three items adapted from Lui et al. (2020) and Schumpe and Lafrenière (2016): (1) “While reading [victim’s name]’s story, I couldn’t help but smile,” (2) “[Victim’s name]’s misfortunes were somewhat funny or entertaining,” and (3) “Reading the story was enjoyable.” Empathy was measured after each story using six items from Batson et al. (2007), arranged on a 7-point scale (1 = very little to 7 = very much), including feelings of sympathy, compassion, pity, distress, sadness, and sorrow. Belief in a just world was assessed using the 13-item scale developed by Dalbert (1999). Finally, dark personality traits—psychopathy, machiavellianism, and narcissism— were measured using the 27-item Short Dark Triad Questionnaire (SD3Q; Jones & Paulhus, 2014). Results Consistent with the research hypothesis, the correlation between everyday sadism and victim blaming was r = .53, which was statistically significant (p < .001) and indicated a large effect size (Cohen, 1992). Moreover, the partial correlation between everyday sadism and victim blaming—while controlling for belief in a just world and the Dark Triad traits—was r = .46, which also remained statistically significant (p < .001) and represented a medium effect size (Cohen, 1992). Multiple regression analysis further confirmed the hypothesis: when everyday sadism, belief in a just world, and the Dark Triad traits were entered simultaneously into the regression model, everyday sadism still significantly predicted victim blaming (see Table 1). Table 1 Multiple Linear Regression Analysis for Predicting Victim Blaming Predictor β SE p Everyday Sadism .456 .027 < .001 Personal Belief in a Just World .235 .044 < .001 General Belief in a Just World .134 .047 .006 Psychopathy –.008 .038 .830 Machiavellianism .022 .048 .594 Narcissism .019 .055 .666 Consistent with the research hypothesis, everyday sadism increased victim blaming via sadistic pleasure and reduced empathy. Conditional process modeling confirmed that the current dataset fit Model 4 (Hayes, 2013) (see Figure 1). The indirect effects were tested using bootstrapping with 5,000 iterations. In this model, where belief in a just world and the Dark Triad traits were included as covariates, the indirect effect of everyday sadism on victim blaming, as well as through lack of empathy (b = .25, SE = .11, 95% CI [.05, .47]) or through sadistic pleasure was statistically significant (b = .32, SE = .06, 95% CI [.20, .44]). This indicates that participants with higher everyday sadism tendencies blamed victims more; because, they experienced greater sadistic pleasure and lower empathy. In other words, everyday sadism predicted victim blaming via increased sadistic pleasure and decreased empathy. Figure 1 The Relationship Between Everyday Sadism and Victim Blaming through Sadistic Pleasure and Lack of Empathy. Numbers Represent Standardized Regression Coefficients *** P < .001, * P < .05 Conclusion For decades, belief in a just world (BJW) has been the primary explanation for the phenomenon of victim blaming (Lerner, 1980). However, the present study introduces and empirically tests a novel psychological explanation: everyday sadism. The study hypothesized that, beyond BJW, individuals with higher levels of everyday sadism may also be prone to blame innocent victims, derive pleasure from their suffering, and lack empathy. Findings supported this hypothesis in two key ways: First, everyday sadism significantly predicted victim blaming even after statistically controlling for BJW and other dark personality traits. Second, this relationship was mediated by sadistic pleasure and low empathy. These findings align with prior research demonstrating that individuals high in everyday sadism tend to find morally questionable behaviors against less reprehensible victims (Trémolière & Djeriouat, 2016), fail to empathize with others’ pain (Buckels et al., 2013), and experience greater pleasure when others suffer more (Chester et al., 2019; Paulhus, 2014). Additionally, Hart et al. (2022) found that such individuals interpret suffering primarily through cold cognition, failing to grasp its emotional salience. The current findings also help reconcile past mixed results on BJW and victim blaming. Some studies found no relationship (Callan et al., 2014; Harvey et al., 2014), while others found a negative one (Callan et al., 2007; Lens et al., 2014). These insights have practical implications. Traditionally, interventions aimed at reducing victim blaming have focused on reframing victims to avoid threatening people’s BJW or providing alternate cognitive routes for BJW restoration (Kay et al., 2005; Savani et al., 2011; van den Bos & Maas, 2009). The current findings suggest an additional strategy: Portray innocent victims in ways that minimize sadistic pleasure and maximize empathy. Moreover, individuals applying for roles involving contact with victims (e.g., judges, police, social workers) should be screened for sadistic tendencies. Training in empathy-enhancement techniques—such as perspective-taking, emotional expression, and exposure to emotional narratives—may also reduce sadistic enjoyment and thus victim blaming (Lui et al., 2020; Sassenrath et al., 2023; Weisz & Zaki, 2017). Finally, these findings extend to the broader phenomenon of schadenfreude—pleasure at others’ misfortunes—which overlaps with sadistic pleasure and may also lead to victim blaming (Greenier, 2018; Lange & Boecker, 2019; Wei & Liu, 2020). Although schadenfreude can have adaptive functions such as enhancing self-worth (Boecker et al., 2022), it may also carry harmful social consequences. Ethical Consideration: Compliance with Ethical Guidelines: All ethical considerations were observed, including ensuring the confidentiality of participants’ identities and obtaining informed consent from all participants. Authors’ Contributions: The first author conducted data collection and wrote all sections and edited the initial draft. Conflict of Interest: The authors declared no conflicts of interest. Funding: The authors did not receive any financial support for this study. Acknowledgment: The authors thank all participants for their time and contribution to this study. تا کنون تنها نظریهای که پدیدۀ زیانبار سرزنش قربانیان بیگناه را توضیح داده است نظریۀ عدالتباوری است، اما از آنجا که برخی از یافتهها با این توضیح ناهمساز هستند، پژوهش کنونی برای این پدیده یک توضیح دوم پیشنهاد و آن را آزمون کرد: سادیسم همگانی. با هدف آزمون این فرضیه که سادیسم همگانی، با میانجیگری لذت سادیستیک و کمبود همدلی، با سرزنش قربانی رابطۀ مثبت دارد، از میان 30 هزار مشترک همراه اول و ایرانسل تهران و کرج، 442 آزمودنی با میانگین سنی 35 سال (202 مرد) با روش در دسترس نمونهگیری شدند. در یک طرح همبستگی، با نسخۀ 15مادهای ارزیابی کامل گرایشهای سادیستیک و سرزنش قربانی، سادیسم همگانی، لذت سادیستیک و همدلی با قربانی با روش پژوهشهای پیشین اندازهگیری شدند. تحلیل‌های رگرسیون نشان دادند سادیسم همگانی، حتی پس از کنترل عدالتباوری و سه ویژگی تاریک شخصیت، سرزنش قربانی را پیش‌بینی می‌کند و الگوسازی فرایند شرطی نشان داد سادیسم همگانی از راه لذت سادیستیک و کمبود همدلی، بر سرزنش قربانی تأثیر معنادار داشته است، به این شکل که اثر مستقیم سادیسم همگانی بر سرزنش قربانی غیرمعنادار، اما اثر غیرمستقیم آن معنادار است. بر پایۀ این یافتهها، پیشنهادهایی برای کاهش پدیدۀ سرزش قربانی داده شده است.

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